Android's openness makes it a favorable environment for reverse engineers. In the following chapter, we'll look at some peculiarities of Android reversing and OS-specific tools as processes.

Android offers reverse engineers big advantages that are not available with "the other" mobile OS. Because Android is open source, you can study its source code at the Android Open Source Project (AOSP) and modify the OS and its standard tools any way you want. Even on standard retail devices it is possible to do things like activating developer mode and sideloading apps without jumping through many hoops. From the powerful tools shipping with the SDK to the wide range of available reverse engineering tools, there's a lot of niceties to make your life easier.

However, there are also a few Android-specific challenges. For example, you'll need to deal with both Java bytecode and native code. Java Native Interface (JNI) is sometimes deliberately used to confuse reverse engineers (to be fair, there are legitimate reasons for using JNI, such as improving performance or supporting legacy code). Developers sometimes use the native layer to "hide" data and functionality, and they may structure their apps such that execution frequently jumps between the two layers.

You'll need at least a working knowledge of both the Java-based Android environment and the Linux OS and Kernel, on which Android is based. You'll also need the right toolset to deal with both native code and bytecode running on the Java virtual machine.

Note that we'll use the OWASP Mobile Testing Guide Crackmes as examples for demonstrating various reverse engineering techniques in the following sections, so expect partial and full spoilers. We encourage you to have a crack at the challenges yourself before reading on!

What You Need

Make sure that the following is installed on your system:

• The newest SDK Tools and SDK Platform-Tools packages. These packages include the Android Debugging Bridge (ADB) client and other tools that interface with the Android platform.

• The Android NDK. This is the Native Development Kit that contains prebuilt toolchains for cross-compiling native code for different architectures.

In addition to the SDK and NDK, you'll also need something to make Java bytecode more human-readable. Fortunately, Java decompilers generally handle Android bytecode well. Popular free decompilers include JD, JAD, Proycon, and CFR. For convenience, we have packed some of these decompilers into our apkx wrapper script. This script completely automates the process of extracting Java code from release APK files and makes it easy to experiment with different backends (we'll also use it in some of the following examples).

Other tools are really a matter of preference and budget. A ton of free and commercial disassemblers, decompilers, and frameworks with different strengths and weaknesses exist; we'll cover some of them.

Setting up the Android SDK

Local Android SDK installations are managed through Android Studio. Create an empty project in Android Studio and select "Tools->Android->SDK Manager" to open the SDK Manager GUI. The "SDK Platforms" tab lets you install SDKs for multiple API levels. Recent API levels are:

• API 23: Android 6.0

• API 24: Android 7.0

• API 25: Android 7.1

• API 26: Android 8.0

• API 27: Android 8.1

• API 28: Android 9

Installed SDKs are found at the following locations:

Windows:
​
C:\Users\<username>\AppData\Local\Android\sdk
​
MacOS:
​
/Users/<username>/Library/Android/sdk

Note: On Linux, you'll need to pick your own SDK location. /opt, /srv, and /usr/local are common locations.

Setting up the Android NDK

The Android NDK contains prebuilt versions of the native compiler and toolchain. Both the GCC and Clang compilers have traditionally been supported, but active support for GCC ended with NDK revision 14. The device architecture and host OS determine the appropriate version. The prebuilt toolchains are in the toolchains directory of the NDK, which contains one subdirectory for each architecture.

Besides picking the right architecture, you need to specify the correct sysroot for the native API level you want to target. The sysroot is a directory that contains the system headers and libraries for your target. Native APIs vary by Android API level. Possible sysroots for each Android API level are in $NDK/platforms/. Each API level directory contains subdirectories for the various CPUs and architectures.

One possibility for setting up the build system is exporting the compiler path and necessary flags as environment variables. To make things easier, however, the NDK allows you to create a so-called standalone toolchain—a "temporary" toolchain that incorporates the required settings.

To set up a standalone toolchain, download the latest stable version of the NDK. Extract the ZIP file, change into the NDK root directory, and run the following command:

$ ./build/tools/make_standalone_toolchain.py --arch arm --api 24 --install-dir /tmp/android-7-toolchain

This creates a standalone toolchain for Android 7.0 in the directory /tmp/android-7-toolchain. For convenience, you can export an environment variable that points to your toolchain directory, (we'll be using this in the examples). Run the following command or add it to your .bash_profile or other startup script:

$  export TOOLCHAIN=/tmp/android-7-toolchain

Enabling Developer Mode

You must enable USB debugging on the device in order to use the ADB debugging interface. Since Android 4.2, the "Developer options" sub menu in the Settings app is hidden by default. To activate it, tap the "Build number" section of the "About phone" view seven times. Note that the build number field's location varies slightly by device—for example, on LG Phones, it is under "About phone -> Software information." Once you have done this, "Developer options" will be shown at bottom of the Settings menu. Once developer options are activated, you can enable debugging with the "USB debugging" switch.

Once USB debugging is enabled, connected devices can be viewed with the following command:

$ adb devices
List of devices attached
BAZ5ORFARKOZYDFA    device

Building a Reverse Engineering Environment for Free

With a little effort, you can build a reasonable GUI-based reverse engineering environment for free.

For navigating the decompiled sources, we recommend IntelliJ, a relatively lightweight IDE that works great for browsing code and allows basic on-device debugging of the decompiled apps. However, if you prefer something that's clunky, slow, and complicated to use, Eclipse is the right IDE for you (based on the author's personal bias).

If you don't mind looking at Smali instead of Java, you can use the smalidea plugin for IntelliJ for debugging. Smalidea supports single-stepping through the bytecode and identifier renaming, and it watches for non-named registers, which makes it much more powerful than a JD + IntelliJ setup.

​APKTool is a popular free tool that can extract and disassemble resources directly from the APK archive and disassemble Java bytecode to Smali format (Smali/Baksmali is an assembler/disassembler for the Dex format. It's also Icelandic for "Assembler/Disassembler"). APKTool allows you to reassemble the package, which is useful for patching and applying changes to the Manifest.

You can accomplish more elaborate tasks (such as program analysis and automated de-obfuscation) with open source reverse engineering frameworks such as Radare2 and Angr. You'll find usage examples for many of these free tools and frameworks throughout the guide.

Commercial Tools

Although working with a completely free setup is possible, you should consider investing in commercial tools. The main advantage of these tools is convenience: they come with a nice GUI, lots of automation, and end user support. If you earn your daily bread as a reverse engineer, they will save you a lot of time.

JEB

​JEB, a commercial decompiler, packs all the functionality necessary for static and dynamic analysis of Android apps into an all-in-one package. It is reasonably reliable and includes prompt support. It has a built-in debugger, which allows for an efficient workflow—setting breakpoints directly in the decompiled (and annotated) sources is invaluable, especially with ProGuard-obfuscated bytecode. Of course, convenience like this doesn't come cheap, and now that JEB is provided fvia a subscription-based license, you'll have to pay a monthly fee to use it.

IDA Pro

​IDA Pro is compatible with ARM, MIPS, Java bytecode, and, of course, Intel ELF binaries. It also comes with debuggers for both Java applications and native processes. With its powerful scripting, disassembling, and extension capabilities, IDA Pro works great for static analysis of native programs and libraries. However, the static analysis facilities it offers for Java code are rather basic—you get the Smali disassembly but not much more. You can't navigate the package and class structure, and some actions (such as renaming classes) can't performed, which can make working with more complex Java apps tedious.

Reverse Engineering

Reverse engineering is the process of taking an app apart to find out how it works. You can do this by examining the compiled app (static analysis), observing the app during run time (dynamic analysis), or a combination of both.

Statically Analyzing Java Code

Java bytecode can be converted back into source code without many problems unless some nasty, tool-breaking anti-decompilation tricks have been applied. We'll be using UnCrackable App for Android Level 1 in the following examples, so download it if you haven't already. First, let's install the app on a device or emulator and run it to see what the crackme is about.

$ wget https://github.com/OWASP/owasp-mstg/raw/master/Crackmes/Android/Level_01/UnCrackable-Level1.apk
$ adb install UnCrackable-Level1.apk

Seems like we're expected to find some kind of secret code!

We're looking for a secret string stored somewhere inside the app, so the next step is to look inside. First, unzip the APK file and look at the content.

$ unzip UnCrackable-Level1.apk -d UnCrackable-Level1
Archive:  UnCrackable-Level1.apk
  inflating: UnCrackable-Level1/AndroidManifest.xml  
  inflating: UnCrackable-Level1/res/layout/activity_main.xml  
  inflating: UnCrackable-Level1/res/menu/menu_main.xml  
 extracting: UnCrackable-Level1/res/mipmap-hdpi-v4/ic_launcher.png  
 extracting: UnCrackable-Level1/res/mipmap-mdpi-v4/ic_launcher.png  
 extracting: UnCrackable-Level1/res/mipmap-xhdpi-v4/ic_launcher.png  
 extracting: UnCrackable-Level1/res/mipmap-xxhdpi-v4/ic_launcher.png  
 extracting: UnCrackable-Level1/res/mipmap-xxxhdpi-v4/ic_launcher.png  
 extracting: UnCrackable-Level1/resources.arsc  
  inflating: UnCrackable-Level1/classes.dex  
  inflating: UnCrackable-Level1/META-INF/MANIFEST.MF  
  inflating: UnCrackable-Level1/META-INF/CERT.SF  
  inflating: UnCrackable-Level1/META-INF/CERT.RSA

In the standard setup, all the Java bytecode and app data is in the file classes.dex in the app root directory. This file conforms to the Dalvik Executable Format (DEX), an Android-specific way of packaging Java programs. Most Java decompilers take plain class files or JARs as input, so you need to convert the classes.dex file into a JAR first. You can do this with dex2jar or enjarify.

Once you have a JAR file, you can use any free decompiler to produce Java code. In this example, we'll use the CFR decompiler. CFR is under active development, and brand-new releases are available on the author's website. CFR was released under an MIT license, so you can use it freely even though its source code is not available.

The easiest way to run CFR is through apkx, which also packages dex2jar and automates extraction, conversion, and decompilation. Install it:

$ git clone https://github.com/b-mueller/apkx
$ cd apkx
$ sudo ./install.sh

This should copy apkx to /usr/local/bin. Run it on UnCrackable-Level1.apk:

$ apkx UnCrackable-Level1.apk
Extracting UnCrackable-Level1.apk to UnCrackable-Level1
Converting: classes.dex -> classes.jar (dex2jar)
dex2jar UnCrackable-Level1/classes.dex -> UnCrackable-Level1/classes.jar
Decompiling to UnCrackable-Level1/src (cfr)

You should now find the decompiled sources in the directory Uncrackable-Level1/src. To view the sources, a simple text editor (preferably with syntax highlighting) is fine, but loading the code into a Java IDE makes navigation easier. Let's import the code into IntelliJ, which also provides on-device debugging functionality.

Open IntelliJ and select "Android" as the project type in the left tab of the "New Project" dialog. Enter "Uncrackable1" as the application name and "vantagepoint.sg" as the company name. This results in the package name "sg.vantagepoint.uncrackable1," which matches the original package name. Using a matching package name is important if you want to attach the debugger to the running app later on because Intellij uses the package name to identify the correct process.

In the next dialog, pick any API number; you don't actually want to compile the project, so the number doesn't matter. Click "next" and choose "Add no Activity," then click "finish."

Once you have created the project, expand the "1: Project" view on the left and navigate to the folder app/src/main/java. Right-click and delete the default package "sg.vantagepoint.uncrackable1" created by IntelliJ.

Now, open the Uncrackable-Level1/src directory in a file browser and drag the sg directory into the now empty Java folder in the IntelliJ project view (hold the "alt" key to copy the folder instead of moving it).

You'll end up with a structure that resembles the original Android Studio project from which the app was built.

As soon as IntelliJ has indexed the code, you can browse it just like you'd browse any other Java project. Note that many of the decompiled packages, classes, and methods have weird one-letter names; this is because the bytecode has been "minified" with ProGuard at build time. This is a basic type of obfuscation that makes the bytecode a little more difficult to read, but with a fairly simple app like this one it won't cause you much of a headache. When you're analyzing a more complex app, however, it can get quite annoying.

When analyzing obfuscated code, annotating class names, method names, and other identifiers as you go along is a good practice. Open the MainActivity class in the package sg.vantagepoint.uncrackable1. The method verify is called when you tap the "verify" button. This method passes user input to a static method called a.a, which returns a boolean value. It seems plausible that a.a verifies user input, so we'll refactor the code to reflect this.

Right-click the class name—the first a in a.a—and select Refactor->Rename from the drop-down menu (or press Shift-F6). Change the class name to something that makes more sense given what you know about the class so far. For example, you could call it "Validator" (you can always revise the name later). a.a now becomes Validator.a. Follow the same procedure to rename the static method a to check_input.

Congratulations—you just learned the fundamentals of static analysis! It is all about theorizing, annotating, and gradually revising theories about the analyzed program until you understand it completely—or, at least, well enough for whatever you want to achieve.

Next, Ctrl+click (or Command+click on Mac) on the check_input method. This takes you to the method definition. The decompiled method looks like this:

    public static boolean check_input(String string) {
        byte[] arrby = Base64.decode((String)"5UJiFctbmgbDoLXmpL12mkno8HT4Lv8dlat8FxR2GOc=", (int)0);
        byte[] arrby2 = new byte[]{};
        try {
            arrby = sg.vantagepoint.a.a.a(Validator.b("8d127684cbc37c17616d806cf50473cc"), arrby);
            arrby2 = arrby;
        }sa
        catch (Exception exception) {
            Log.d((String)"CodeCheck", (String)("AES error:" + exception.getMessage()));
        }
        if (string.equals(new String(arrby2))) {
            return true;
        }
        return false;
    }

So, you have a base64-encoded String that's passed to the function a in the package sg.vantagepoint.a.a (again, everything is called a) along with something that looks suspiciously like a hex-encoded encryption key (16 hex bytes = 128bit, a common key length). What exactly does this particular a do? Ctrl-click it to find out.

public class a {
    public static byte[] a(byte[] object, byte[] arrby) {
        object = new SecretKeySpec((byte[])object, "AES/ECB/PKCS7Padding");
        Cipher cipher = Cipher.getInstance("AES");
        cipher.init(2, (Key)object);
        return cipher.doFinal(arrby);
    }
}

Now you're getting somewhere: it's simply standard AES-ECB. Looks like the base64 string stored in arrby1 in check_input is a ciphertext. It is decrypted with 128bit AES, then compared with the user input. As a bonus task, try to decrypt the extracted ciphertext and find the secret value!

A faster way to get the decrypted string is to add dynamic analysis—we'll revisit UnCrackable Level 1 later to show how, so don't delete the project yet!

Statically Analyzing Native Code

Dalvik and ART both support the Java Native Interface (JNI), which defines a way for Java code to interact with native code written in C/C++. As on other Linux-based operating systems, native code is packaged into ELF dynamic libraries ("*.so"), which the Android app loads at run time via the System.load method.

Android JNI functions are written in native code that has been compiled into Linux ELF libraries. It's standard Linux fare. However, instead of relying on widely used C libraries (such as glibc) Android binaries are built against a custom libc named Bionic. Bionic adds support for important Android-specific services such as system properties and logging, and it is not fully POSIX-compatible.

Download HelloWorld-JNI.apk from the OWASP MSTG repository. Installing and running it on your emulator or Android device is optional.

$ wget HelloWord-JNI.apk
$ adb install HelloWord-JNI.apk

This app is not exactly spectacular—all it does is show a label with the text "Hello from C++." This is the app Android generates by default when you create a new project with C/C++ support— it's just enough to show the basic principles of JNI calls.

Decompile the APK with apkx. This extracts the source code into the HelloWorld/src directory.

$ wget https://github.com/OWASP/owasp-mstg/raw/master/Samples/Android/01_HelloWorld-JNI/HelloWord-JNI.apk
$ apkx HelloWord-JNI.apk
Extracting HelloWord-JNI.apk to HelloWord-JNI
Converting: classes.dex -> classes.jar (dex2jar)
dex2jar HelloWord-JNI/classes.dex -> HelloWord-JNI/classes.jar

The MainActivity is found in the file MainActivity.java. The "Hello World" text view is populated in the onCreate() method:

public class MainActivity
extends AppCompatActivity {
    static {
        System.loadLibrary("native-lib");
    }
​
    @Override
    protected void onCreate(Bundle bundle) {
        super.onCreate(bundle);
        this.setContentView(2130968603);
        ((TextView)this.findViewById(2131427422)).setText((CharSequence)this.stringFromJNI());
    }
​
    public native String stringFromJNI();
}
​
}

Note the declaration of public native String stringFromJNI at the bottom. The keyword "native" tells the Java compiler that this method is implemented in a native language. The corresponding function is resolved during run time, but only if a native library that exports a global symbol with the expected signature is loaded (signatures comprise a package name, class name, and method name). In this example, this requirement is satisfied by the following C or C++ function:

JNIEXPORT jstring JNICALL Java_sg_vantagepoint_helloworld_MainActivity_stringFromJNI(JNIEnv *env, jobject)

So where is the native implementation of this function? If you look into the lib directory of the APK archive, you'll see eight subdirectories named after different processor architectures. Each of these directories contains a version of the native library libnative-lib.so that has been compiled for the processor architecture in question. When System.loadLibrary is called, the loader selects the correct version based on the device that the app is running on.

Following the naming convention mentioned above, you can expect the library to export a symbol called Java_sg_vantagepoint_helloworld_MainActivity_stringFromJNI. On Linux systems, you can retrieve the list of symbols with readelf (included in GNU binutils) or nm. Do this on Mac OS with the greadelf tool, which you can install via Macports or Homebrew. The following example uses greadelf:

$ greadelf -W -s libnative-lib.so | grep Java
     3: 00004e49   112 FUNC    GLOBAL DEFAULT   11 Java_sg_vantagepoint_helloworld_MainActivity_stringFromJNI

This is the native function that eventually gets executed when the stringFromJNI native method is called.

To disassemble the code, you can load libnative-lib.so into any disassembler that understands ELF binaries (i.e., any disassembler). If the app ships with binaries for different architectures, you can theoretically pick the architecture you're most familiar with, as long as it is compatible with the disassembler. Each version is compiled from the same source and implements the same functionality. However, if you're planning to debug the library on a live device later, it's usually wise to pick an ARM build.

To support both older and newer ARM processors, Android apps ship with multiple ARM builds compiled for different Application Binary Interface (ABI) versions. The ABI defines how the application's machine code is supposed to interact with the system at run time. The following ABIs are supported:

• armeabi: ABI is for ARM-based CPUs that support at least the ARMv5TE instruction set.

• armeabi-v7a: This ABI extends armeabi to include several CPU instruction set extensions.

• arm64-v8a: ABI for ARMv8-based CPUs that support AArch64, the new 64-bit ARM architecture.

Most disassemblers can handle any of those architectures. Below, we'll be viewing the armeabi-v7a version in IDA Pro. It is in lib/armeabi-v7a/libnative-lib.so. If you don't own an IDA Pro license, you can do the same thing with the demo or evaluation version available on the Hex-Rays website.

Open the file in IDA Pro. In the "Load new file" dialog, choose "ELF for ARM (Shared Object)" as the file type (IDA should detect this automatically), and "ARM Little-Endian" as the processor type.

Once the file is open, click into the "Functions" window on the left and press Alt+t to open the search dialog. Enter "java" and hit enter. This should highlight the Java_sg_vantagepoint_helloworld_MainActivity_stringFromJNI function. Double-click the function to jump to its address in the disassembly Window. "Ida View-A" should now show the disassembly of the function.

Not a lot of code there, but you should analyze it. The first thing you need to know is that the first argument passed to every JNI is a JNI interface pointer. An interface pointer is a pointer to a pointer. This pointer points to a function table—an array of even more pointers, each of which points to a JNI interface function (is your head spinning yet?). The function table is initialized by the Java VM and allows the native function to interact with the Java environment.

With that in mind, let's have a look at each line of assembly code.

LDR  R2, [R0]

Remember: the first argument (in R0) is a pointer to the JNI function table pointer. The LDR instruction loads this function table pointer into R2.

LDR  R1, =aHelloFromC

This instruction loads into R1 the pc-relative offset of the string "Hello from C++." Note that this string comes directly after the end of the function block at offset 0xe84. Addressing relative to the program counter allows the code to run independently of its position in memory.

LDR.W  R2, [R2, #0x29C]

This instruction loads the function pointer from offset 0x29C into the JNI function pointer table pointed to by R2. This is the NewStringUTF function. You can look at the list of function pointers in jni.h, which is included in the Android NDK. The function prototype looks like this:

jstring     (*NewStringUTF)(JNIEnv*, const char*);

The function takes two arguments: the JNIEnv pointer (already in R0) and a String pointer. Next, the current value of PC is added to R1, resulting in the absolute address of the static string "Hello from C++" (PC + offset).

ADD  R1, PC

Finally, the program executes a branch instruction to the NewStringUTF function pointer loaded into R2:

BX   R2

When this function returns, R0 contains a pointer to the newly constructed UTF string. This is the final return value, so R0 is left unchanged and the function returns.

Debugging and Tracing

So far, you've been using static analysis techniques without running the target apps. In the real world—especially when reversing malware or more complex apps—pure static analysis is very difficult. Observing and manipulating an app during run time makes it much, much easier to decipher its behavior. Next, we'll have a look at dynamic analysis methods that help you do just that.

Android apps support two different types of debugging: Debugging on the level of the Java runtime with the Java Debug Wire Protocol (JDWP), and Linux/Unix-style ptrace-based debugging on the native layer, both of which are valuable to reverse engineers.

Debugging Release Apps

Dalvik and ART support the JDWP, a protocol for communication between the debugger and the Java virtual machine (VM) that it debugs. JDWP is a standard debugging protocol that's supported by all command line tools and Java IDEs, including JDB, JEB, IntelliJ, and Eclipse. Android's implementation of JDWP also includes hooks for supporting extra features implemented by the Dalvik Debug Monitor Server (DDMS.

A JDWP debugger allows you to step through Java code, set breakpoints on Java methods, and inspect and modify local and instance variables. You'll use a JDWP debugger most of the time you debug "normal" Android apps (i.e., apps that don't make many calls to native libraries).

In the following section, we'll show how to solve the UnCrackable App for Android Level 1 with JDB alone. Note that this is not an efficient way to solve this crackme—you can do it much faster with Frida and other methods, which we'll introduce later in the guide. This, however, serves as an introduction to the capabilities of the Java debugger.

Repackaging

Every debugger-enabled process runs an extra thread for handling JDWP protocol packets. This thread is started only for apps that have the android:debuggable="true" tag set in their manifest file's <application> element. This is the typical configuration of Android devices shipped to end users.

When reverse engineering apps, you'll often have access to the target app's release build only. Release builds aren't meant to be debugged—after all, that's the purpose of debug builds. If the system property ro.debuggable is set to "0," Android disallows both JDWP and native debugging of release builds. Although this is easy to bypass, you're still likely to encounter limitations, such as a lack of line breakpoints. Nevertheless, even an imperfect debugger is still an invaluable tool— being able to inspect the run time state of a program makes understanding the program a lot easier.

To "convert" a release build into a debuggable build, you need to modify a flag in the app's manifest file. This modification breaks the code signature, so you'll also have to re-sign the altered APK archive.

To re-sign, you first need a code-signing certificate. If you have built a project in Android Studio before, the IDE has already created a debug keystore and certificate in $HOME/.android/debug.keystore. The default password for this keystore is "android," and the key is called "androiddebugkey."

The standard Java distribution includes keytool for managing keystores and certificates. You can create your own signing certificate and key, then add it to the debug keystore:

$ keytool -genkey -v -keystore ~/.android/debug.keystore -alias signkey -keyalg RSA -keysize 2048 -validity 20000

After the certificate is available, you can repackage the UnCrackable-Level1.apk according to the following steps. Note that the Android Studio build tools directory must be in the path. It is located at [SDK-Path]/build-tools/[version]. The zipalign and apksigner tools are in this directory. 1. Use apktool to unpack the app and decode AndroidManifest.xml:

$ apktool d --no-src UnCrackable-Level1.apk

1. Add android:debuggable = "true" to the manifest using a text editor:

<application android:allowBackup="true" android:debuggable="true" android:icon="@drawable/ic_launcher" android:label="@string/app_name" android:name="com.xxx.xxx.xxx" android:theme="@style/AppTheme">

Note: To get apktool to do this for you automatically, use the -d or --debug flag while building the APK. This will add debuggable="true" to the AndroidManifest file.

1. Repackage and sign the APK.

$ cd UnCrackable-Level1
$ apktool b
$ zipalign -v 4 dist/UnCrackable-Level1.apk ../UnCrackable-Repackaged.apk
$ cd ..
$ apksigner sign --ks  ~/.android/debug.keystore --ks-key-alias signkey UnCrackable-Repackaged.apk

Note: If you experience JRE compatibility issues with apksigner, you can use jarsigner instead. When you do this, zipalign is called after signing.

$ jarsigner -verbose -keystore ~/.android/debug.keystore UnCrackable-Repackaged.apk signkey
$ zipalign -v 4 dist/UnCrackable-Level1.apk ../UnCrackable-Repackaged.apk

1. Reinstall the app:

$ adb install UnCrackable-Repackaged.apk

The “Wait For Debugger” Feature

The UnCrackable App is not stupid: it notices that it has been run in debuggable mode and reacts by shutting down. A modal dialog is shown immediately, and the crackme terminates once you tap "OK."

Fortunately, Android's "Developer options" contain the useful "Wait for Debugger" feature, which allows you to automatically suspend an app doing startup until a JDWP debugger connects. With this feature, you can connect the debugger before the detection mechanism runs, and trace, debug, and deactivate that mechanism. It's really an unfair advantage, but, on the other hand, reverse engineers never play fair!

In the Developer options, pick Uncrackable1 as the debugging application and activate the "Wait for Debugger" switch.

Note: Even with ro.debuggable set to 1 in default.prop, an app won't show up in the "debug app" list unless the android:debuggable flag is set to true in the Manifest.

The Android Debug Bridge

The adb command line tool, which ships with the Android SDK, bridges the gap between your local development environment and a connected Android device. You'll usually debug apps on the emulator or a device connected via USB. Use the adb devices command to list the connected devices.

$ adb devices
List of devices attached
090c285c0b97f748  device

The adb jdwp command lists the process ids of all debuggable processes running on the connected device (i.e., processes hosting a JDWP transport). With the adb forward command, you can open a listening socket on your host machine and forward this socket's incoming TCP connections to the JDWP transport of a chosen process.

$ adb jdwp
12167
$ adb forward tcp:7777 jdwp:12167

You're now ready to attach JDB. Attaching the debugger, however, causes the app to resume, which you don't want. You want to keep it suspended so that you can explore first. To prevent the process from resuming, pipe the suspend command into jdb:

$ { echo "suspend"; cat; } | jdb -attach localhost:7777
Initializing jdb ...
> All threads suspended.
>

You're now attached to the suspended process and ready to go ahead with the jdb commands. Entering ? prints the complete list of commands. Unfortunately, the Android VM doesn't support all available JDWP features. For example, the redefine command, which would let you redefine a class' code is not supported. Another important restriction is that line breakpoints won't work because the release bytecode doesn't contain line information. Method breakpoints do work, however. Useful working commands include:

• *classes: list all loaded classes

• class/method/fields : Print details about a class and list its method and fields

• locals: print local variables in current stack frame

• print/dump : print information about an object

• stop in : set a method breakpoint

• clear : remove a method breakpoint

• set = : assign new value to field/variable/array element

Let's revisit the decompiled code from the UnCrackable App Level 1 and think about possible solutions. A good approach would be suspending the app in a state where the secret string is held in a variable in plain text so you can retrieve it. Unfortunately, you won't get that far unless you deal with the root/tampering detection first.

Review the code and you'll see that the method sg.vantagepoint.uncrackable1.MainActivity.a displays the "This in unacceptable..." message box. This method creates an AlertDialog and sets a listener class for the onClick event. This class (named b) has a callback method will terminates the app once the user taps the “OK” button. To prevent the user from simply canceling the dialog, the setCancelable method is called.

  private void a(final String title) {
        final AlertDialog create = new AlertDialog$Builder((Context)this).create();
        create.setTitle((CharSequence)title);
        create.setMessage((CharSequence)"This in unacceptable. The app is now going to exit.");
        create.setButton(-3, (CharSequence)"OK", (DialogInterface$OnClickListener)new b(this));
        create.setCancelable(false);
        create.show();
    }

You can bypass this with a little run time tampering. With the app still suspended, set a method breakpoint on android.app.Dialog.setCancelable and resume the app.

> stop in android.app.Dialog.setCancelable                        
Set breakpoint android.app.Dialog.setCancelable
> resume
All threads resumed.
>
Breakpoint hit: "thread=main", android.app.Dialog.setCancelable(), line=1,110 bci=0
main[1]

The app is now suspended at the first instruction of the setCancelable method. You can print the arguments passed to setCancelable with the locals command (the arguments are shown incorrectly under "local variables").

main[1] locals
Method arguments:
Local variables:
flag = true

setCancelable(true) was called, so this can't be the call we're looking for. Resume the process with the resume command.

main[1] resume
Breakpoint hit: "thread=main", android.app.Dialog.setCancelable(), line=1,110 bci=0
main[1] locals
flag = false

You've now reached a call to setCancelable with the argument false. Set the variable to true with the set command and resume.

main[1] set flag = true
 flag = true = true
main[1] resume

Repeat this process, setting flag to true each time the breakpoint is reached, until the alert box is finally displayed (the breakpoint will be reached five or six times). The alert box should now be cancelable! Tap the screen next to the box and it will close without terminating the app.

Now that the anti-tampering is out of the way, you're ready to extract the secret string! In the "static analysis" section, you saw that the string is decrypted with AES, then compared with the string input to the message box. The method equals of the java.lang.String class compares the string input with the secret string. Set a method breakpoint on java.lang.String.equals, enter an arbitrary text string in the edit field, and tap the "verify" button. Once the breakpoint is reached, you can read the method argument with the locals command.

> stop in java.lang.String.equals
Set breakpoint java.lang.String.equals
>    
Breakpoint hit: "thread=main", java.lang.String.equals(), line=639 bci=2
​
main[1] locals
Method arguments:
Local variables:
other = "radiusGravity"
main[1] cont
​
Breakpoint hit: "thread=main", java.lang.String.equals(), line=639 bci=2
​
main[1] locals
Method arguments:
Local variables:
other = "I want to believe"
main[1] cont

This is the plaintext string you're looking for!

Debugging with an IDE

Setting up a project in an IDE with the decompiled sources is a neat trick that allows you to set method breakpoints directly in the source code. In most cases, you should be able single-step through the app and inspect the state of variables with the GUI. The experience won't be perfect—it's not the original source code after all, so you won't be able to set line breakpoints and things will sometimes simply not work correctly. Then again, reversing code is never easy, and efficiently navigating and debugging plain old Java code is a pretty convenient way of doing it. A similar method has been described in the NetSPI blog.

To set up IDE debugging, first create your Android project in IntelliJ and copy the decompiled Java sources into the source folder as described above in the "Statically Analyzing Java Code" section. On the device, choose the app as “debug app” on the Developer options” (Uncrackable1 in this tutorial), and make sure you've switched on the "Wait For Debugger" feature.

Once you tap the Uncrackable app icon from the launcher, it will be suspended in "wait for a debugger" mode.

Now you can set breakpoints and attach to the Uncrackable1 app process with the "Attach Debugger" toolbar button.

Note that only method breakpoints work when debugging an app from decompiled sources. Once a method breakpoint is reached, you'll get the chance to single step during the method execution.

After you choose the Uncrackable1 application from the list, the debugger will attach to the app process and you'll reach the breakpoint that was set on the onCreate() method. Uncrackable1 app triggers anti-debugging and anti-tampering controls within the onCreate() method. That's why setting a breakpoint on the onCreate() method just before the anti-tampering and anti-debugging checks are performed is a good idea.

Next, single-step through the onCreate() method by clicking "Force Step Into" in Debugger view. The "Force Step Into" option allows you to debug the Android framework functions and core Java classes that are normally ignored by debuggers.

Once you "Force Step Into," the debugger will stop at the beginning of the next method, which is the a() method of the class sg.vantagepoint.a.c.

This method searches for the "su" binary within a list of directories (/system/xbin and others). Since you're running the app on a rooted device/emulator, you need to defeat this check by manipulating variables and/or function return values.

You can see the directory names inside the "Variables" window by clicking "Step Over" the Debugger view to step into and through the a() method .

Step into the System.getenv method with the "Force Step Into" feature.

After you get the colon-separated directory names, the debugger cursor will return to the beginning of the a() method, not to the next executable line. This happens because you're working on the decompiled code instead of the source code. This skipping makes following the code flow crucial to debugging decompiled applications. Otherwise, identifying the next line to be executed would become complicated.

If you don't want to debug core Java and Android classes, you can step out of the function by clicking "Step Out" in the Debugger view. Using "Force Step Into" might be a good idea once you reach the decompiled sources and "Step Out" of the core Java and Android classes. This will help speed up debugging while you keep an eye on the return values of the core class functions.

After the a() method gets the directory names, it will search for the su binary within these directories. To defeat this check, step through the detection method and inspect the variable content. Once execution reaches a location where the su binary would be detected, modify one of the varibales holding the file name or directory name by pressing F2 or right-clicking and choosing "Set Value".

Once you modify the binary name or the directory name, File.exists should return false.

This defeats the first root detection control of Uncrackable App Level 1. The remaining anti-tampering and anti-debugging controls can be defeated in similar ways so that you can finally reach the secret string verification functionality.

The secret code is verified by the method a() of class sg.vantagepoint.uncrackable1.a. Set a breakpoint on method a() and "Force Step Into" when you reach the breakpoint. Then, single-step until you reach the call to String.equals. This is where user input is compared with the secret string.

You can see the secret string in the "Variables" view when you reach the String.equals method call.

Debugging Native Code

Native code on Android is packed into ELF shared libraries and runs just like any other native Linux program. Consequently, you can debug it with standard tools (including GDB and built-in IDE debuggers such as IDA Pro and JEB) as long as they support the device's processor architecture (most devices are based on ARM chipsets, so this is usually not an issue).

You'll now set up your JNI demo app, HelloWorld-JNI.apk, for debugging. It's the same APK you downloaded in "Statically Analyzing Native Code." Use adb install to install it on your device or on an emulator.

$ adb install HelloWorld-JNI.apk

If you followed the instructions at the beginning of this chapter, you should already have the Android NDK. It contains prebuilt versions of gdbserver for various architectures. Copy the gdbserver binary to your device:

$ adb push $NDK/prebuilt/android-arm/gdbserver/gdbserver /data/local/tmp

The gdbserver --attach command causes gdbserver to attach to the running process and bind to the IP address and port specified in comm, which in this case is a HOST:PORT descriptor. Start HelloWorld-JNI on the device, then connect to the device and determine the PID of the HelloWorld process. Then switch to the root user and attach gdbserver:

$ adb shell
$ ps | grep helloworld
u0_a164   12690 201   1533400 51692 ffffffff 00000000 S sg.vantagepoint.helloworldjni
$ su
# /data/local/tmp/gdbserver --attach localhost:1234 12690
Attached; pid = 12690
Listening on port 1234

The process is now suspended, and gdbserver is listening for debugging clients on port 1234. With the device connected via USB, you can forward this port to a local port on the host with the abd forward command:

$ adb forward tcp:1234 tcp:1234

You'll now use the prebuilt version of gdb included in the NDK toolchain (if you haven't already, follow the instructions above to install it).

$ $TOOLCHAIN/bin/gdb libnative-lib.so
GNU gdb (GDB) 7.11
(...)
Reading symbols from libnative-lib.so...(no debugging symbols found)...done.
(gdb) target remote :1234
Remote debugging using :1234
0xb6e0f124 in ?? ()

You have successfully attached to the process! The only problem is that you're already too late to debug the JNI function StringFromJNI; it only runs once, at startup. You can solve this problem by activating the "Wait for Debugger" option. Go to "Developer Options" -> "Select debug app" and pick HelloWorldJNI, then activate the "Wait for debugger" switch. Then terminate and re-launch the app. It should be suspended automatically.

Our objective is to set a breakpoint at the first instruction of the native function Java_sg_vantagepoint_helloworldjni_MainActivity_stringFromJNI before resuming the app. Unfortunately, this isn't possible at this point in the execution because libnative-lib.so isn't yet mapped into process memory—it is loaded dynamically during run time. To get this working, you'll first use JDB to gently change the process into the desired state.

First, resume execution of the Java VM by attaching JDB. You don't want the process to resume immediately though, so pipe the suspend command into JDB:

$ adb jdwp
14342
$ adb forward tcp:7777 jdwp:14342
$ { echo "suspend"; cat; } | jdb -attach localhost:7777

Next, suspend the process where the Java runtime loads libnative-lib.so. In JDB, set a breakpoint at the java.lang.System.loadLibrary method and resume the process. After the breakpoint has been reached, execute the step up command, which will resume the process until loadLibrary()returns. At this point, libnative-lib.so has been loaded.

> stop in java.lang.System.loadLibrary
> resume
All threads resumed.
Breakpoint hit: "thread=main", java.lang.System.loadLibrary(), line=988 bci=0
> step up
main[1] step up
>
Step completed: "thread=main", sg.vantagepoint.helloworldjni.MainActivity.<clinit>(), line=12 bci=5
​
main[1]

Execute gdbserver to attach to the suspended app. This will cause the app to be suspended by both the Java VM and the Linux kernel (creating a state of “double-suspension”).

$ adb forward tcp:1234 tcp:1234
$ $TOOLCHAIN/arm-linux-androideabi-gdb libnative-lib.so
GNU gdb (GDB) 7.7
Copyright (C) 2014 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
(...)
(gdb) target remote :1234
Remote debugging using :1234
0xb6de83b8 in ?? ()

Execute the resume command in JDB to resume execution of the Java runtime (you're done with JDB, so you can detach it too). You can start exploring the process with GDB. The info sharedlibrary command displays the loaded libraries, which should include libnative-lib.so. The info functions command retrieves a list of all known functions. The JNI function java_sg_vantagepoint_helloworldjni_MainActivity_stringFromJNI should be listed as a non-debugging symbol. Set a breakpoint at the address of that function and resume the process.

(gdb) info sharedlibrary
(...)
0xa3522e3c  0xa3523c90  Yes (*)     libnative-lib.so
(gdb) info functions
All defined functions:
​
Non-debugging symbols:
0x00000e78  Java_sg_vantagepoint_helloworldjni_MainActivity_stringFromJNI
(...)
0xa3522e78  Java_sg_vantagepoint_helloworldjni_MainActivity_stringFromJNI
(...)
(gdb) b *0xa3522e78
Breakpoint 1 at 0xa3522e78
(gdb) cont

Your breakpoint should be reached when the first instruction of the JNI function is executed. You can now display a disassembled version of the function with the disassemble command.

Breakpoint 1, 0xa3522e78 in Java_sg_vantagepoint_helloworldjni_MainActivity_stringFromJNI() from libnative-lib.so
(gdb) disass $pc
Dump of assembler code for function Java_sg_vantagepoint_helloworldjni_MainActivity_stringFromJNI:
=> 0xa3522e78 <+0>: ldr r2, [r0, #0]
   0xa3522e7a <+2>: ldr r1, [pc, #8]  ; (0xa3522e84 <Java_sg_vantagepoint_helloworldjni_MainActivity_stringFromJNI+12>)
   0xa3522e7c <+4>: ldr.w r2, [r2, #668]  ; 0x29c
   0xa3522e80 <+8>: add r1, pc
   0xa3522e82 <+10>:  bx  r2
   0xa3522e84 <+12>:  lsrs  r4, r7, #28
   0xa3522e86 <+14>:  movs  r0, r0
End of assembler dump.

From here on, you can single-step through the program, print the contents of registers and memory, or tamper with them to explore the JNI function (which, in this case, simply returns a string). Use the help command to get more information on debugging, running, and examining data.

Execution Tracing

Besides being useful for debugging, the JDB command line tool offers basic execution tracing functionality. To trace an app right from the start, you can pause the app with the Android "Wait for Debugger" feature or a kill –STOP command and attach JDB to set a deferred method breakpoint on any initialization method. Once the breakpoint is reached, activate method tracing with the trace go methods command and resume execution. JDB will dump all method entries and exits from that point onwards.

$ adb forward tcp:7777 jdwp:7288
$ { echo "suspend"; cat; } | jdb -attach localhost:7777
Set uncaught java.lang.Throwable
Set deferred uncaught java.lang.Throwable
Initializing jdb ...
> All threads suspended.
> stop in com.acme.bob.mobile.android.core.BobMobileApplication.<clinit>()          
Deferring breakpoint com.acme.bob.mobile.android.core.BobMobileApplication.<clinit>().
It will be set after the class is loaded.
> resume
All threads resumed.M
Set deferred breakpoint com.acme.bob.mobile.android.core.BobMobileApplication.<clinit>()
​
Breakpoint hit: "thread=main", com.acme.bob.mobile.android.core.BobMobileApplication.<clinit>(), line=44 bci=0
main[1] trace go methods
main[1] resume
Method entered: All threads resumed.

The Dalvik Debug Monitor Server (DDMS) is a GUI tool included with Android Studio. It may not look like much, but its Java method tracer is one of the most awesome tools you can have in your arsenal, and it is indispensable for analyzing obfuscated bytecode.

DDMS is somewhat confusing, however; it can be launched several ways, and different trace viewers will be launched depending on how a method was traced. There's a standalone tool called "Traceview" as well as a built-in viewer in Android Studio, both of which offer different ways to navigate the trace. You'll usually use Android studio's built-in viewer, which gives you a zoom-able hierarchical timeline of all method calls. The standalone tool, however, is also useful—it has a profile panel that shows the time spent in each method and the parents and children of each method.

To record an execution trace in Android Studio, open the "Android" tab at the bottom of the GUI. Select the target process in the list and click the little "stop watch" button on the left. This starts the recording. Once you're done, click the same button to stop the recording. The integrated trace view will open and show the recorded trace. You can scroll and zoom the timeline view with the mouse or trackpad.

Execution traces can also be recorded in the standalone Android Device Monitor. The Device Monitor can be started within Android Studio (Tools -> Android -> Android Device Monitor) or from the shell with the ddms command.

To start recording tracing information, select the target process in the "Devices" tab and click "Start Method Profiling". Click the stop button to stop recording, after which the Traceview tool will open and show the recorded trace. Clicking any of the methods in the profile panel highlights the selected method in the timeline panel.

DDMS also offers a convenient heap dump button that will dump the Java heap of a process to a .hprof file. The Android Studio user guide contains more information about Traceview .

Tracing System Calls

Moving down a level in the OS hierarchy, you arrive at privileged functions that require the powers of the Linux kernel. These functions are available to normal processes via the system call interface. Instrumenting and intercepting calls into the kernel is an effective method for getting a rough idea of what a user process is doing, and often the most efficient way to deactivate low-level tampering defenses.

Strace is a standard Linux utility that monitors interaction between processes and the kernel. The utility is not included with Android by default, but can easily be built from source via the Android NDK. Strace is a very convenient way to monitor a process' system calls. Strace depends, however on the ptrace() system call to attach to the target process, so it only works up to the point at which anti-debugging measures start up.

If the Android "stop application at startup" feature is unavailable, you can use a shell script to launch the process and immediately attach strace (not an elegant solution, but it works):

$ while true; do pid=$(pgrep 'target_process' | head -1); if [[ -n "$pid" ]]; then strace -s 2000 - e "!read" -ff -p "$pid"; break; fi; done

Ftrace

Ftrace is a tracing utility built directly into the Linux kernel. On a rooted device, ftrace can trace kernel system calls more transparently than strace can (strace relies on the ptrace system call to attach to the target process).

Conveniently, the stock Android kernel on both Lollipop and Marshmallow include ftrace functionality. The feature can be enabled with the following command:

$ echo 1 > /proc/sys/kernel/ftrace_enabled

The /sys/kernel/debug/tracing directory holds all control and output files related to ftrace. The following files are found in this directory:

• available_tracers: This file lists the available tracers compiled into the kernel.

• current_tracer: This file sets or displays the current tracer.

• tracing_on: Echo 1 into this file to allow/start update of the ring buffer. Echoing 0 will prevent further writes into the ring buffer.

KProbes

The KProbes interface provides an even more powerful way to instrument the kernel: it allows you to insert probes into (almost) arbitrary code addresses within kernel memory. KProbes inserts a breakpoint instruction at the specified address. Once the breakpoint is reached, control passes to the KProbes system, which then executes the user-defined handler function(s) and the original instruction. Besides being great for function tracing, KProbes can implement rootkit-like functionality, such as file hiding.

Jprobes and Kretprobes are other KProbes-based probe types that allow hooking of function entries and exits.

The stock Android kernel comes without loadable module support, which is a problem because Kprobes are usually deployed as kernel modules. The strict memory protection the Android kernel is compiled with is another issue becauseit prevents the patching of some parts of Kernel memory. Elfmaster's system call hooking method causes a Kernel panic on stock Lollipop and Marshmallow because the sys_call_table is non-writable. You can, however, use KProbes in a sandbox by compiling your own, more lenient Kernel (more on this later).

Emulation-based Analysis

The Android emulator is based on QEMU, a generic and open source machine emulator. QEMU emulates a guest CPU by translating the guest instructions on-the-fly into instructions the host processor can understand. Each basic block of guest instructions is disassembled and translated into an intermediate representation called Tiny Code Generator (TCG). The TCG block is compiled into a block of host instructions, stored in a code cache, and executed. After execution of the basic block, QEMU repeats the process for the next block of guest instructions (or loads the already translated block from the cache). The whole process is called dynamic binary translation.

Because the Android emulator is a fork of QEMU, it comes with all QEMU features, including monitoring, debugging, and tracing facilities. QEMU-specific parameters can be passed to the emulator with the -qemu command line flag. Youcan use QEMU's built-in tracing facilities to log executed instructions and virtual register values. Starting qemu with the "-d" command line flag will cause it to dump the blocks of guest code, micro operations, or host instructions being executed. With the –d_asm option, QEMU logs all basic blocks of guest code as they enter QEMU's translation function. The following command logs all translated blocks to a file:

$ emulator -show-kernel -avd Nexus_4_API_19 -snapshot default-boot -no-snapshot-save -qemu -d in_asm,cpu 2>/tmp/qemu.log

Unfortunately, generating a complete guest instruction trace with QEMU is impossible because code blocks are written to the log only at the time they are translated—not when they're taken from the cache. For example, if a block is repeatedly executed in a loop, only the first iteration will be printed to the log. There's no way to disable TB caching in QEMU (besides hacking the source code). Nevertheless, the functionality is sufficient for basic tasks, such as reconstructing the disassembly of a natively executed cryptographic algorithm.

Dynamic analysis frameworks, such as PANDA and DroidScope, build on QEMU's tracing functionality. PANDA/PANDROID is the best choice if you're going for a CPU-trace based analysis because it allows you to easily record and replay a full trace and is relatively easy to set up if you follow the build instructions for Ubuntu.

DroidScope

DroidScope—an extension to the DECAF dynamic analysis framework—is a malware analysis engine based on QEMU. It instrumentats the emulated environment on several context levels, making it possible to fully reconstruct the semantics on the hardware, Linux and Java levels.

DroidScope exports instrumentation APIs that mirror the different context levels (hardware, OS, and Java) of a real Android device. Analysis tools can use these APIs to query or set information and register callbacks for various events. For example, a plugin can register callbacks for native instruction start and end, memory reads and writes, register reads and writes, system calls, and Java method calls.

All of this makes it possible to build tracers that are practically transparent to the target application (as long as we can hide the fact that it is running in an emulator). One limitation is that DroidScope is compatible with the Dalvik VM only.

PANDA

​PANDA is another QEMU-based dynamic analysis platform. Similar to DroidScope, PANDA can be extended by registering callbacks that are triggered by certain QEMU events. The twist PANDA adds is its record/replay feature. This allows an iterative workflow: the reverse engineer records an execution trace of the target app (or some part of it), then replays it repeatedly, refining the analysis plugins with each iteration.

PANDA comes with pre-made plugins, including a stringsearch tool and a syscall tracer. Most importantly, it supports Android guests, and some of the DroidScope code has even been ported. Building and running PANDA for Android ("PANDROID") is relatively straightforward. To test it, clone Moiyx's git repository and build PANDA:

$ cd qemu
$ ./configure --target-list=arm-softmmu --enable-android $ makee

As of this writing, Android versions up to 4.4.1 run fine in PANDROID, but anything newer than that won't boot. Also, the Java level introspection code only works on the Android 2.3 Dalvik runtime. Older versions of Android seem to run much faster in the emulator, so sticking with Gingerbread is probably best if you plan to use PANDA. For more information, check out the extensive documentation in the PANDA git repo.

VxStripper

Another very useful tool built on QEMU is VxStripper by Sébastien Josse. VXStripper is specifically designed for de-obfuscating binaries. By instrumenting QEMU's dynamic binary translation mechanisms, it dynamically extracts an intermediate representation of a binary. It then applies simplifications to the extracted intermediate representation and recompiles the simplified binary with LLVM. This is a very powerful way of normalizing obfuscated programs. See Sébastien's paper for more information.

Tampering and Runtime Instrumentation

First, we'll look at some simple ways to modify and instrument mobile apps. Tampering means making patches or run-time changes to the app to affect its behavior. For example, you may want to deactivate SSL pinning or binary protections that hinder the testing process. Runtime Instrumentation encompasses adding hooks and runtime patches to observe the app's behavior. In mobile app-sec however, the term loosely refers to all kinds of run-time manipulation, including overriding methods to change behavior.

Patching and Re-Packaging

Making small changes to the app Manifest or bytecode is often the quickest way to fix small annoyances that prevent you from testing or reverse engineering an app. On Android, two issues in particular happen regularly:

1. You can't attach a debugger to the app because the android:debuggable flag is not set to true in the Manifest.

2. You can't intercept HTTPS traffic with a proxy because the app employs SSL pinning.

In most cases, both issues can be fixed by making minor changes to the app and then re-signing and re-packaging it. Apps that run additional integrity checks beyond default Android code-signing are an exception—in these cases, you have to patch the additional checks as well.

Example: Disabling Certificate Pinning

Certificate pinning is an issue for security testers who want to intercept HTTPS communication for legitimate reasons. Patching bytecode to deactivate SSL pinning can help with this. To demonstrate bypassing certificate pinning, we'll walk through an implementation in an example application.

The first step is disassembling the APK with apktool:

$ apktool d target_apk.apk

You then locate the certificate pinning checks in the Smali source code. Searching the code for keywords such as "X509TrustManager" should point you in the right direction.

In our example, a search for "X509TrustManager" returns one class that implements a custom Trustmanager. The derived class implements the methods checkClientTrusted, checkServerTrusted, and getAcceptedIssuers.

To bypass the pinning check, add the return-void opcode to the first line of each method. This opcode causes the checks to return immediately. With this modification, no certificate checks are performed, and the application accepts all certificates.

.method public checkServerTrusted([LJava/security/cert/X509Certificate;Ljava/lang/String;)V
  .locals 3
  .param p1, "chain"  # [Ljava/security/cert/X509Certificate;
  .param p2, "authType"   # Ljava/lang/String;
​
  .prologue     
  return-void      # <-- OUR INSERTED OPCODE!
  .line 102
  iget-object v1, p0, Lasdf/t$a;->a:Ljava/util/ArrayList;
​
  invoke-virtual {v1}, Ljava/util/ArrayList;->iterator()Ljava/util/Iterator;
​
  move-result-object v1
​
  :goto_0
  invoke-interface {v1}, Ljava/util/Iterator;->hasNext()Z

Patching React Native applications

If the React Native framework has been used for developing then the main application code is located in the file assets/index.android.bundle. This file contains the JavaScript code. Most of the time, the JavaScript code in this file is minified. By using the tool JStillery a human readable version of the file can be retried, allowing code analysis. The CLI version of JStillery or the local server should be preferred instead of using the online version as otherwise source code is sent and disclosed to a 3rd party.

The following approach can be used in order to patch the JavaScript file:

1. Unpack the APK archive using APKTool tool.

2. Copy the content of the file assets/index.android.bundle into a temporary file.

3. Use JStillery to beautify and deobfuscate the content of the temporary file.

4. Identify where the code should be patched in the temporary file and implement the changes.

5. Put the patched code on a single line and copy it in the original assets/index.android.bundle file.

6. Repack the APK archive using APKTool tool and sign it before to install it on the target device/emulator.

Hooking Java Methods with Xposed

​Xposed is a "framework for modules that can change the behavior of the system and apps without touching any APKs." Technically, it is an extended version of Zygote that exports APIs for running Java code when a new process is started. Running Java code in the context of the newly instantiated app makes it possible to resolve, hook, and override Java methods belonging to the app. Xposed uses reflection to examine and modify the running app. Changes are applied in memory and persist only during the process' run times—no patches to the application files are made.

To use Xposed, you need to first install the Xposed framework on a rooted device. Deploy modifications deployed in the form of separate apps ("modules"), which can be toggled on and off in the Xposed GUI.

Example: Bypassing Root Detection with XPosed

Let's assume you're testing an app that's stubbornly quitting on your rooted device. You decompile the app and find the following highly suspect method:

package com.example.a.b
​
public static boolean c() {
  int v3 = 0;
  boolean v0 = false;
​
  String[] v1 = new String[]{"/sbin/", "/system/bin/", "/system/xbin/", "/data/local/xbin/",
    "/data/local/bin/", "/system/sd/xbin/", "/system/bin/failsafe/", "/data/local/"};
​
    int v2 = v1.length;
​
    for(int v3 = 0; v3 < v2; v3++) {
      if(new File(String.valueOf(v1[v3]) + "su").exists()) {
         v0 = true;
         return v0;
      }
    }
​
    return v0;
}

This method iterates through a list of directories and returns "true" (device rooted) if it finds the su binary in any of them. Checks like this are easy to deactivate all you have to do is replace the code with something that returns "false." Method hooking with an Xposed module is one way to do this.

The method XposedHelpers.findAndHookMethod allows you to override existing class methods. By inspecting the decompiled source code, you can find out that the method performing the check is c(). This method is located in the class com.example.a.b. The following is an Xposed module that overrides the function so that it always returns false:

package com.awesome.pentestcompany;
​
import static de.robv.android.xposed.XposedHelpers.findAndHookMethod;
import de.robv.android.xposed.IXposedHookLoadPackage;
import de.robv.android.xposed.XposedBridge;
import de.robv.android.xposed.XC_MethodHook;
import de.robv.android.xposed.callbacks.XC_LoadPackage.LoadPackageParam;
​
public class DisableRootCheck implements IXposedHookLoadPackage {
​
    public void handleLoadPackage(final LoadPackageParam lpparam) throws Throwable {
        if (!lpparam.packageName.equals("com.example.targetapp"))
            return;
​
        findAndHookMethod("com.example.a.b", lpparam.classLoader, "c", new XC_MethodHook() {
            @Override
​
            protected void beforeHookedMethod(MethodHookParam param) throws Throwable {
                XposedBridge.log("Caught root check!");
                param.setResult(false);
            }
​
        });
    }
}

Just like regular Android apps, modules for Xposed are developed and deployed with Android Studio. For more details on writing, compiling, and installing Xposed modules, refer to the tutorial provided by its author, rovo89.

Dynamic Instrumentation with FRIDA

​Frida "lets you inject snippets of JavaScript or your own library into native apps on Windows, macOS, Linux, iOS, Android, and QNX." Although it was originally based on Google's V8 JavaScript runtime, Frida has used Duktape since version 9.

Code can be injected in several ways. For example, Xposed permanently modifies the Android app loader, providing hooks for running your own code every time a new process is started. In contrast, Frida implements code injection by writing code directly into process memory. When attached to a running app, Frida uses ptrace to hijack a thread of a running process. This thread is used to allocate a chunk of memory and populate it with a mini-bootstrapper. The bootstrapper starts a fresh thread, connects to the Frida debugging server that's running on the device, and loads a dynamically generated library file that contains the Frida agent and instrumentation code. The hijacked thread resumes after being restored to its original state, and process execution continues as usual.

Frida injects a complete JavaScript runtime into the process, along with a powerful API that provides a lot of useful functionality, including calling and hooking native functions and injecting structured data into memory. It also supports interaction with the Android Java runtime.

FRIDA Architecture, source: https://www.frida.re/docs/hacking/​

Here are some more APIs FRIDA offers on Android:

• Instantiate Java objects and call static and non-static class methods

• Replace Java method implementations

• Enumerate live instances of specific classes by scanning the Java heap (Dalvik only)

• Scan process memory for occurrences of a string

• Intercept native function calls to run your own code at function entry and exit

The FRIDA Stalker —a code tracing engine based on dynamic recompilation— is available for Android (with support for ARM64), including various enhancements, since Frida version 10.5 (https://www.frida.re/news/2017/08/25/frida-10-5-released/). Some features have limitted support on current Android devices, such as support for ART (https://www.frida.re/docs/android/), so it is recommended to start out with the Dalvik runtime.

Installing Frida

To install Frida locally, simply use PyPI:

$ sudo pip install frida

Your Android device doesn't need to be rooted to run Frida, but it's the easiest setup. We assume a rooted device here unless otherwise noted. Download the frida-server binary from the Frida releases page. Make sure that you download the right frida-server binary for the architecture of your Android device or emulator: x86, x86_64, arm or arm64. Make sure that the server version (at least the major version number) matches the version of your local Frida installation. PyPI usually installs the latest version of Frida. If you're unsure which version is installed, you can check with the Frida command line tool:

$ frida --version
9.1.10
$ wget https://github.com/frida/frida/releases/download/9.1.10/frida-server-9.1.10-android-arm.xz

Or you can run the following command to automatically detect frida version and download the right frida-server binary:

$ wget https://github.com/frida/frida/releases/download/$(frida --version)/frida-server-$(frida --version)-android-arm.xz

Copy frida-server to the device and run it:

$ adb push frida-server /data/local/tmp/
$ adb shell "chmod 755 /data/local/tmp/frida-server"
$ adb shell "su -c /data/local/tmp/frida-server &"

With frida-server running, you should now be able to get a list of running processes with the following command:

$ frida-ps -U
  PID  Name
-----  --------------------------------------------------------------
  276  adbd
  956  android.process.media
  198  bridgemgrd
 1191  com.android.nfc
 1236  com.android.phone
 5353  com.android.settings
  936  com.android.systemui
(...)

The -U option lets Frida search for USB devices or emulators.

To trace specific (low-level) library calls, you can use the frida-trace command line tool:

$ frida-trace -i "open" -U com.android.chrome

This generates a little JavaScript in __handlers__/libc.so/open.js, which Frida injects into the process. The script traces all calls to the open function in libc.so. You can modify the generated script according to your needs with Frida JavaScript API.

Use frida CLI to work with Frida interactively. It hooks into a process and gives you a command line interface to Frida's API.

$ frida -U com.android.chrome

With the -l option, you can also use the Frida CLI to load scripts , e.g., to load myscript.js:

$ frida -U -l myscript.js com.android.chrome

Frida also provides a Java API, which is especially helpful for dealing with Android apps. It lets you work with Java classes and objects directly. Here is a script to overwrite the onResume function of an Activity class:

Java.perform(function () {
    var Activity = Java.use("android.app.Activity");
    Activity.onResume.implementation = function () {
        console.log("[*] onResume() got called!");
        this.onResume();
    };
});

The above script calls Java.perform to make sure that your code gets executed in the context of the Java VM. It instantiates a wrapper for the android.app.Activity class via Java.use and overwrites the onResume() function. The new onResume() function implementation prints a notice to the console and calls the original onResume() method by invoking this.onResume() every time an activity is resumed in the app.

Frida also lets you search for and work with instantiated objects that are on the heap. The following script searches for instances of android.view.View objects and calls their toString method. The result is printed to the console:

setImmediate(function() {
    console.log("[*] Starting script");
    Java.perform(function () {
        Java.choose("android.view.View", {
             "onMatch":function(instance){
                  console.log("[*] Instance found: " + instance.toString());
             },
             "onComplete":function() {
                  console.log("[*] Finished heap search")
             }
        });
    });
});

The output would look like this:

[*] Starting script
[*] Instance found: android.view.View{7ccea78 G.ED..... ......ID 0,0-0,0 #7f0c01fc app:id/action_bar_black_background}
[*] Instance found: android.view.View{2809551 V.ED..... ........ 0,1731-0,1731 #7f0c01ff app:id/menu_anchor_stub}
[*] Instance found: android.view.View{be471b6 G.ED..... ......I. 0,0-0,0 #7f0c01f5 app:id/location_bar_verbose_status_separator}
[*] Instance found: android.view.View{3ae0eb7 V.ED..... ........ 0,0-1080,63 #102002f android:id/statusBarBackground}
[*] Finished heap search

You can also use Java's reflection capabilities. To list the public methods of the android.view.View class, you could create a wrapper for this class in Frida and call getMethods() from the wrapper's class property:

Java.perform(function () {
    var view = Java.use("android.view.View");
    var methods = view.class.getMethods();
    for(var i = 0; i < methods.length; i++) {
        console.log(methods[i].toString());
    }
});

Frida also provides bindings for various languages, including Python, C, NodeJS, and Swift.

Solving the OWASP Uncrackable Crackme Level1 with Frida

Frida makes it easy to solve the OWASP UnCrackable Crackme Level 1. You have already seen that you can hook method calls with Frida.

When you start the App on an emulator or a rooted device, you'll find that the app presents a dialog box and exits as soon as you press "Ok" because it detected root:

Let's see how we can prevent this. The main method (decompiled with CFR) looks like this:

package sg.vantagepoint.uncrackable1;
​
import android.app.Activity;
import android.app.AlertDialog;
import android.content.Context;
import android.content.DialogInterface;
import android.os.Bundle;
import android.text.Editable;
import android.view.View;
import android.widget.EditText;
import sg.vantagepoint.uncrackable1.a;
import sg.vantagepoint.uncrackable1.b;
import sg.vantagepoint.uncrackable1.c;
​
public class MainActivity
extends Activity {
    private void a(String string) {
        AlertDialog alertDialog = new AlertDialog.Builder((Context)this).create();
        alertDialog.setTitle((CharSequence)string);
        alertDialog.setMessage((CharSequence)"This in unacceptable. The app is now going to exit.");
        alertDialog.setButton(-3, (CharSequence)"OK", (DialogInterface.OnClickListener)new b(this));
        alertDialog.show();
    }
​
    protected void onCreate(Bundle bundle) {
        if (sg.vantagepoint.a.c.a() || sg.vantagepoint.a.c.b() || sg.vantagepoint.a.c.c()) {
            this.a("Root detected!"); //This is the message we are looking for
        }
        if (sg.vantagepoint.a.b.a((Context)this.getApplicationContext())) {
            this.a("App is debuggable!");
        }
        super.onCreate(bundle);
        this.setContentView(2130903040);
    }
​
    public void verify(View object) {
        object = ((EditText)this.findViewById(2131230720)).getText().toString();
        AlertDialog alertDialog = new AlertDialog.Builder((Context)this).create();
        if (a.a((String)object)) {
            alertDialog.setTitle((CharSequence)"Success!");
            alertDialog.setMessage((CharSequence)"This is the correct secret.");
        } else {
            alertDialog.setTitle((CharSequence)"Nope...");
            alertDialog.setMessage((CharSequence)"That's not it. Try again.");
        }
        alertDialog.setButton(-3, (CharSequence)"OK", (DialogInterface.OnClickListener)new c(this));
        alertDialog.show();
    }
}

Notice the "Root detected" message in the onCreate method and the various methods called in the preceding if-statement (which perform the actual root checks). Also note the "This is unacceptable..." message from the first method of the class, private void a. Obviously, this displays the dialog box. There is an alertDialog.onClickListener callback set in the setButton method call, which closes the application via System.exit(0) after successful root detection. With Frida, you can prevent the app from exiting by hooking the callback.

The onClickListener implementation for the dialog button doesn't do much:

package sg.vantagepoint.uncrackable1;
​
class b implements android.content.DialogInterface$OnClickListener {
    final sg.vantagepoint.uncrackable1.MainActivity a;
​
    b(sg.vantagepoint.uncrackable1.MainActivity a0)
    {
        this.a = a0;
        super();
    }
​
    public void onClick(android.content.DialogInterface a0, int i)
    {
        System.exit(0);
    }
}

It just exits the app. Now intercept it with Frida to prevent the app from exiting after root detection:

setImmediate(function() { //prevent timeout
    console.log("[*] Starting script");
​
    Java.perform(function() {
      bClass = Java.use("sg.vantagepoint.uncrackable1.b");
      bClass.onClick.implementation = function(v) {
         console.log("[*] onClick called");
      };
      console.log("[*] onClick handler modified");
​
    });
});

Wrap your code in the function setImmediate to prevent timeouts (you may or may not need to do this), then call Java.perform to use Frida's methods for dealing with Java. Afterwards retrieve a wrapper for the class that implements the OnClickListener interface and overwrite its onClick method. Unlike the original, the new version of onClick just writes console output and doesn't exit the app. If you inject your version of this method via Frida, the app should not exit when you click the "OK" dialog button.

Save the above script as uncrackable1.js and load it:

$ frida -U -l uncrackable1.js sg.vantagepoint.uncrackable1

After you see the "onClickHandler modified" message, you can safely press "OK". The app will not exit anymore.

You can now try to input a "secret string." But where do you get it?

If you look at the class sg.vantagepoint.uncrackable1.a, you can see the encrypted string with which your input gets compared:

package sg.vantagepoint.uncrackable1;
​
import android.util.Base64;
import android.util.Log;
​
public class a {
    public static boolean a(String string) {
        byte[] arrby = Base64.decode((String)"5UJiFctbmgbDoLXmpL12mkno8HT4Lv8dlat8FxR2GOc=", (int)0);
        byte[] arrby2 = new byte[]{};
        try {
            arrby2 = arrby = sg.vantagepoint.a.a.a((byte[])a.b((String)"8d127684cbc37c17616d806cf50473cc"), (byte[])arrby);
        }
        catch (Exception var2_2) {
            Log.d((String)"CodeCheck", (String)("AES error:" + var2_2.getMessage()));
        }
        if (!string.equals(new String(arrby2))) return false;
        return true;
    }
​
    public static byte[] b(String string) {
        int n = string.length();
        byte[] arrby = new byte[n / 2];
        int n2 = 0;
        while (n2 < n) {
            arrby[n2 / 2] = (byte)((Character.digit(string.charAt(n2), 16) << 4) + Character.digit(string.charAt(n2 + 1), 16));
            n2 += 2;
        }
        return arrby;
    }
}